Amber and the Ancient Spark: How Pre-Industrial Cultures Understood Static Electricity

Have you ever rubbed a balloon on your hair and watched it stick to the wall? Or felt a tiny shock after walking across a carpet? These sparks of static electricity are so common that we barely think about them today. But imagine experiencing these sparks thousands of years ago, with no concept of electricity. What would you think they were? Miniature thunderbolts from Zeus or Thor?

It started with a simple tweet. It came from a great account called “Old Hollow Tree” who posts wholesome, family-friendly content on X.

Here’s the tweet:

“I want to know how people in the distant past who did not have an understanding of electricity thought about static buildup on their wooly clothes and blankets.

“What did a medieval peasant call the sparks he saw when rubbing his hand across a woolen blanket in the dark?”

This is the time of year when I start to think about static electricity a lot. The air dries out in Japan. On comes the jumpers and the warmer clothes. So too the air conditioners are switched into heat mode. Now the door to the school office, only when leaving, and the doors to the metal cabinets, are traps waiting to electrocute me with static. It happens to a few teachers but for some reason, I, and my mother too, have a supercharged ability to generate static, and get zapped every single time. Ever touched a doorknob and felt a sharp zap? That’s static electricity in action! But what’s actually happening? Let’s break it down.”

Everything around us is made up of atoms, and atoms have tiny particles called electrons. Electrons carry a negative charge and can move from one surface to another. When you rub certain materials together, like socks on a carpet, electrons transfer from one surface to the other. This creates an imbalance—a buildup of electric charge. Now, when your body holds onto extra electrons and you touch a conductive surface like metal, the charges quickly equalize. That sudden movement of electrons? It’s the zap you feel! Static build-up is harmless but can be shocking—literally! So next time, remember: it’s just physics at play!

For millennia, people have been fascinated by static build up, but even more so by a beautiful natural item which generates it when rubbed against wool. They had to interpret it through the lenses of philosophy, religion, and mythology. Let’s uncover how different cultures understood these sparks of the unknown and how these observations led to the invention of electricity.

Section 1: The Word Electricity

Where does the word electricity come from? It was first used in English in the 1640s by English physician, Sir Thomas Browne, but it was first created by William Gilbert in his De Magnete. It is what is called a modern Latin coinage, that is to say, a new word in Latin which would not have existed in the original, Roman, vernacular. And this goes back to ancient Greek and a man named Thales of Miletus. Thales of Miletus (c. 624–546 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and mathematician, often regarded as the first philosopher in Western history. He proposed that water is the fundamental substance of all things, is credited with predicting a solar eclipse and founding geometry principles, bridging natural phenomena and rational explanation. He also came up with the association between static electricity and the word elektron.What does that mean? Well, it is the other half of this video’s title – amber. For the word lovers among you, amber is from the Arabic anbar, and the English equivalent would have been eolhsand (elk-sand) or glaer meaning resin.  Thales observed amber (elektron) attracting light objects like straw after being rubbed on wool. This is the first recorded observation of what we now call static electricity. This became known as “the amber effect” and thus morphed into the word electricity.

An Aside on Amber

Let’s go on a tangent… what is elk-sand, I mean, amber? Did you know amber is fossilized tree resin, not sap? Some pieces are over 100 million years old, dating back to the age of dinosaurs. These golden gems offer a window into prehistoric ecosystems. Of course, many of us, when we think of amber, either imagine expensive ornaments and adornments, or if you are like me, you think of dinosaurs. Not because that was when they were formed, but because of  Jurassic Park.

It is a neat idea, isn’t it? A mozzie bites some poor dino, gets its blood, but then quickly settles on a branch and is enveloped in resin. It turns into hard elk-sand, sorry, amber, and millions of years later is found by someone. Perhaps a farmer or woodsman or hunter-gatherer, and it ends up getting traded. Did you know amber was so valuable it had its own trade route? The Amber Road connected the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean, fueling trade for millennia. In more ancient times, Pliny the Elder wrote that a small amber sculpture was worth more than a healthy slave while in the Baltic, it was used as a currency for the exchange of goods with the Roman empire. Today, Amber sells for between 20 and 40,000 dollars, with most of it being collected in the Baltic states and in the Dominican Republic. It is estimated that up to 1,500 metric tons of amber is collected each year.

Back to the Dinos

Then a scientist finds it, inserts a needle into the amber, withdraws the dino blood, and uses it to resurrect dinosaurs. If only it were possible. Sadly, DNA does not last particularly long unless preserved in special circumstances. While it is unknown how long it remains stable when trapped in amber, it is unlikely that it could last tens of millions of years. There are no get out of entropy free cards. According to Dr. Corey Nislow, the “record now stands at 1.2 million years, but… when you’re talking about dinosaurs, you’re talking about more than sixty million years.” But we can dream, because… who doesn’t want to see how the hell a stegosaurus would function?

Did people know about static electricity and what did they think it was?

A fine question. But before we begin, let’s be real. The vast majority of humans who have existed could not read or write, and so have not left their opinions on the matter with us. We cannot assume they understood it, imagined gods or evil spirits, or djinn or elves, or if they had more rational explanations. Furthermore, just because they might have had a superstitious name for something does not mean there was a widely believed superstition. Do we really believe the old English, before 1066, really thought amber was made from elks and sand or by elks in sand or that elks generated sand which happened to be amber? No, unlikely. Truth is, we just do not know. But some people did think about it and were able to write it down. So we can look at what they thought about the phenomenon.

Greek Scholars

Let’s start with ancient Greece. Thales is credited with one of the first observations on what happens when you rub amber on fur. Afterwards, the amber could attract small objects like feathers or bits of straws. Three hundred years later, Theophrastus, one of Aristotle’s students – let’s remember that Aristotle favoured observation over indoctrination as a form of learning, described the properties of amber in his book, On Stones. Pliny the Elder, a Roman, mentioned the attractive properties of amber in his Naturalis Historia. These observations eventually led to the 17th and 18th century studies on electricity by the likes of William Gilbert and Benjamin Franklin.

Moving to India and China

One of the oldest texts to mention the attractive properties of some objects, is the Atharva Veda dating from around 1,200 BC. There is no specific mention of static electricity but there was an awareness of the phenomenon. In another, great, ancient civilisation, this time China, there were a few writings on the subject. Some scholars mention that silk had magical qualities. There is also an acknowledgement that jade, too, had a special nature. As smooth jade can also accumulate static, when rubbed, could this special nature be static? Ge Hong, in his Baopuzi, also mentions the special natures of objects. But again, nothing specific. We also have the idea of Qi. Qi is the lifeforce of a person. It sustains all living beings. I cannot help but wonder if people studying Qi, would have seen static as related somehow – a manifestation or release of life force? If you are a scholar of Qi, let me know in the comments below if this has been studied or if static is mentioned by Qi scholars. I would be very curious to know.

Lightning of the Gods

We can speculate that if fire and lightning are related to Gods, then so too would static electricity. We do not know how prevalent it was. How many people had access to amber and silk? Probably not so many. Wool and amber, in the right places such as the Baltic, sure. That is more likely. But what about static shocks? It is possible, but most people did not have metal doorknobs or metal doors, full stop. They had metal tools but with wooden handles. There would have been fewer opportunities to get shocked – lucky buggers.

And then there is the environment. I know that my clothing mixed with the air drying nature of air conditioners on heat mode, lead to me getting more shocks from metal objects. How about hearths and campfires? Drafty homes with wattle and daub walls, thatch roofs, and not a pane of glass to be seen. I do not imagine the air being dry enough that just walking in the clothes would generate a static charge. Perhaps this is why thinkers frame their ideas around rubbing objects on the fabrics rather than generating static by just existing. And they had no rubber balloons – how sad.

Well, that might not be all, for afterall, amber is not the only generator of static or indeed, of electricity.

Electric Catfish Boogaloo

A lot of our observations of the world begin with animals and nature. In ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, both home to related, semitic peoples, understood that some catfish can produce electric shocks – some used them to help relieve pain. Roman physician, Scribonius Largus used electric rays known as Torpedo Fish to help treat ailments such as gout and headaches. He probably liked leeches too…

Magnetic Lodestones

There are also lodestones – naturally magnetised ore. These are not electrical devices but they did help lay the groundwork for understanding magnetic and electrical forces. Indeed, Chinese sources mention using lodestones for navigation.

Baghdad batteries

Then there are Baghdad batteries. Dating from around 250 BC to 250 AD, these were clay jars with a copper cylinder and an iron rod inside. If filled with vinegar or lemon juice, it is thought these jars could have generated a small electrical current. The exact use of these so-called batteries is unknown, but they could have been used to electroplate metals.

Spiritual Interpretations:

Continuing the nature theme… Many cultures saw lightning as divine or supernatural.

In ancient cultures, lightning was often seen as a divine phenomenon, wielded by powerful gods. In Greek mythology, Zeus, king of the gods, hurled lightning bolts as symbols of his authority and wrath. Similarly, Norse mythology revered Thor, the thunder god, who summoned lightning with his hammer, Mjölnir. In Hinduism, Indra, the god of storms, wielded the vajra, a thunderbolt weapon. For the Romans, Jupiter mirrored Zeus as the master of lightning. These associations reflect humanity’s awe of nature’s raw power, interpreting lightning as a manifestation of divine will, justice, or fury in their quest to explain the unknown.

• Static shocks during rituals could have been interpreted as omens or spirits.
• For Example: An unexpected spark might have been seen as divine approval or warning.

Medieval Scholars

These parallel thoughts between observations by scholars and spiritual interpretations continued on into the medieval period. Luminaries such as Thomas Aquinas,  Albertus Magnus in Germany or Roger Bacon in England, noticed these effects. Amber continued to be mentioned in bestiaries as a natural wonder. Alchemists who wished to turn iron into gold, mentioned amber’s properties too. 

The Path to Science

William Gilbert, an English physician and scientist, is often celebrated as the “father of electricity and magnetism.” In 1600, he published De Magnete, a groundbreaking work that laid the foundation for the study of electromagnetism. Gilbert conducted extensive experiments with various materials, including amber, glass, and metals, discovering that rubbing certain substances could generate an attractive force, which he called electricus—a term derived from the Greek word for amber, ēlektron. He distinguished between magnetic and electrical forces, showing that they were different phenomena but shared similar principles. His meticulous observations also described the Earth as a giant magnet, revolutionizing understanding of magnetism. Gilbert’s work marked the beginning of a scientific approach to studying electrical and magnetic properties, moving away from mystical interpretations. His contributions influenced future scientists, laying crucial groundwork for later developments by figures like Benjamin Franklin and Michael Faraday. After Gilbert, the German scientist Otto von Guericke created a sulphur globe which could be rubbed to generate static electricity, thus inventing the first electrostatic generator. Around the same time, Robert Boyle proved that electricity could be generated in a vacuum and how it affected objects such as charged glass tubes. Stephen Gray then showed that electricity could travel long distances along silk and wires.

The Leyden jar

The next huge step forward came from the Netherlands. The Leyden jar, invented in 1745 by Pieter van Musschenbroek of Leyden and independently by Ewald Georg von Kleist, was a groundbreaking device for storing electric charge. This early capacitor consisted of a glass jar lined with conductive material, usually metal foil, both inside and outside, with a metal rod or wire that connected to the inner foil. When the jar was charged by rubbing materials to create static electricity, it could hold a significant electrical charge. Discharging the Leyden jar created a powerful spark, demonstrating the potential of stored electricity. This invention was pivotal in advancing the study of electricity and laid the foundation for future electrical research.

Over time, human knowledge in the west compounded to create electrical devices. A lot of this rests on the shoulders of Michael Faraday, but also some people with familiar names – Alessandro Volta, Andre-Marie Ampere, and Georg Ohm, who of course gave us volts, amps, and ohms. And while he does not have a measurement named after him, James Clerk Maxwell’s equations paved the way for our modern understanding of electrical and electromagnetic theory. Faraday’s work led to the invention of the dynamo which turned mechanical energy into electrical energy, and from that Edison’s team and Tesla’s genius, gave us practical electricity. 

Conclusion

And perhaps, amber was forgotten – now to forever be a jewel and a wishful source for dinosaur resurrection, but it lives on in the name we use for all of these modern powers – electricity. From divine sparks to scientific breakthroughs, the story of static electricity is one of wonder and discovery. These tiny sparks, once seen as divine or mysterious, have led us to an age where we command electricity itself. What might the unexplained phenomena of today inspire in the future? Is there another power source out there waiting for us? Or is the return of dinosaurs more likely?